Sunday, July 24, 2011

Scrutinizing Air Changes

Scrutinizing Air Changes
It is important to analyze the air changes and question the requirements and motivation behind these changes. Ventilation has a huge impact on overall operating costs not due just to the energy required to move the air, but also due to the energy required to heat and cool the air, particularly in extreme climates. The ventilation rates are often overestimated, so do not assume the air change rate is always driven by thermal loads. Additional changes do not necessarily equate to increased safety.
“Base optimum minimum ventilation requirements on user needs, health and safety protection, and energy consumption,” says Mathew. “The environmental health and safety officers usually set the rates, so designers need to work with them to optimize the rates. Consider design options, including exhaust alternatives, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling, a panic switch for emergency airflow in case a spill occurs, cascading air use from clean areas to dirty areas, and occupancy sensors or a schedule-driven approach to change the rate when the space is not occupied.”
By performing CFD modeling of indoor airflows, designers can study airflow patterns and optimize the position of supply diffusers, return grilles, and fume hood locations relative to work surfaces and, thereby, improve the effectiveness of the airflow.
The ventilation rate seems to differ among research facilities and correlates with a corresponding difference in energy usage. Owners, architects, and engineers should inquire about what the proper rate should be in order to achieve maximum safety and savings.
Hutchinson Hall at the University of Rochester is an example of a building that had 10 air changes per hour, which represents an original standard set at least four decades ago. The environmental safety and health officer was asked why the rate was set at 10 and whether the potential hazards were reviewed. After reviewing the rate and its subsequent ramifications, the officer defined various hazard levels for different types of laboratories. This approach is called control banding. In each one, there was an occupied setting, as well as an unoccupied setting for the air change rate.
The issue of fume hoods being massive beasts of energy consumption must be considered, as well. A single fume hood consumes as much energy as three average homes, while a lab with 100 hoods utilizes as much energy as a small neighborhood. The LBNL provides an online tool at http://fumehoodcalculator.lbl.gov that enables users to compare fume hoods. Information about the type of hood, the price of electricity and gas, as well as the climate zone, can be entered into the system and the calculator will make comparisons between fume hoods. The calculator can be used to test the energy and cost impacts of improving component efficiencies and comparing options.
“Everything owners and programmers can do to reduce the number and the size of fume hoods is the best way to improve energy efficiency,” says Mathew. “Make sure you allow for easy additions and removals to alleviate concerns from faculty who think if it is not done now, it will never be installed. Consider variable air volume (VAV), two-speed fume hoods, the new generation of high-performance hoods that use a different airflow pattern and provide excellent containment with much lower volumes.”
Reduce the Pressure Drop
Approximately 50 percent of the total heating, ventilation, and air conditioning energy in a lab is related to fans and the electricity used to operate them. There are several ways to reduce that energy usage with the most logical being to improve the efficiency of the fans by ensuring the motors are in top working order. Total airflow can also be reduced through the VAV supply.
“An often overlooked strategy is to reduce system pressure drop throughout the entire ventilation system on both the supply and exhaust sides,” says Mathew. “Low-pressure drop design strategies can be used across the entire air distribution network. This low-pressure drop can result in 75 percent energy savings for fan loads, smaller fans used, longer filter life with less maintenance, and a more quiet operation.”
Reducing the total pressure drop through a ventilation system can be achieved by increasing the area of cooling and heating coils, resulting in the fans requiring less energy to push the air through the coils. Another way to reduce the drop is to use radial ducts instead of square ducts.
A major complaint architects hear from mechanical engineers is that they do not provide them with enough shaft space and ceiling plenum space. Therefore, allowing for larger ducts requires good upfront architectural integration to provide larger spaces.
At the University of California, Davis Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences, engineers looked at the base case of the air handler, which was 2.2 inches of water gauge (w.g.) and dropped it to 0.68 w.g. The duct work was kept as straight and short as possible with large ducts. As a result of including these strategies, the engineers achieved a pressure drop that resulted in decreased energy usage.
Get Real with Plug Loads
Plug loads are basically the heat loads that result from any lab equipment that requires electricity and generates heat. HVAC systems are often oversized out of fear that a facility might not be able to meet over-estimated plug loads in the future. As a result, chillers and air handlers are often oversized and this leads to unnecessary expense and wasted operating cost in the long term.
Mechanical equipment should be right sized to save capital and operating costs. Study actual loads at comparable facilities to fully understand the real load, using improved estimates of heat gain from plug loads.
“Find out what the plug loads are at a comparable lab and then start your sizing based on that rather than an arbitrarily high number,” suggests Mathew. “You need to design for high part-load efficiency because labs aren’t always going to operate at peak loads. One of the ways you can do this is by using a modular approach.”
For example, two large boilers at the LBNL were replaced with 11 smaller, modular boilers. Each boiler kicks on as needed as the load ramps up. No more than seven of the boilers have operated simultaneously, leaving four completely redundant and demonstrating how oversizing occurs.
UC Davis is concerned about plug loads and is using right-sizing, in part, because of tight construction budgets and the need to minimize the impact of large mechanical equipment. In order to accomplish these objectives, the University began sizing to a 15-minute average peak rather than an instantaneous peak. Electrical systems must be sized accordingly, but mechanical systems should be sized for a lower quantity.
Right sizing is also being used at the Molecular Foundry Laboratory at the Berkeley Lab. The air handlers and electrical generators were downsized, resulting in a multi-million dollar initial cost savings. Some of the money saved was applied toward additional green features that qualify the facility for a Silver-level LEED certification.

Sunday, July 17, 2011

Steps That Businesses Can Take To Manage

Steps That Businesses Can Take To Manage
Rising Electric Costs

You can reduce electricity use at your facility and manage rising electricity prices more effectively. This action list will help you get started. If you do not have the expertise in-house, work with Energy Savers and local experts such as contractors and product and service providers to complete energy saving projects.
This fact sheet identifies no cost, low cost and moderate cost options to increase your businesses’ energy efficiency. Each step you take will help you manage rising electricity costs
now and in years to come.

NINE ACTIONS THAT WILL REDUCE ELECTRICITY USE
1. Turn off lights and equipment when not in use
2. Program setback thermostats and energy management systems correctly
3. Install the most efficient lighting equipment and incorporate control devices
4. Maintain HVAC equipment regularly
5. Check other equipment regularly and ensure it is operating properly
6. Install variable speed drives
7. Purchase energy efficient equipment
8. Monitor monthly energy bills
9. Get employees involved in saving energy

1. TURN IT OFF! (NO COST ACTION)
Turn off electric lights when they are not needed and take advantage of natural daylight whenever
possible. Turn off office equipment at night and on weekends. Set the energy saving "sleep mode" to activate at the end of each day, or install timers that do the job for you and your staff.
2. MAKE SURE SETBACK THERMOSTATS AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ARE
PROGRAMMED CORRECTLY (NO / LOW COST ACTIONS)
You can save two percent on air conditioning costs for each degree you raise the thermostat.
Instead of relying on staff to adjust temperatures properly, use setback thermostats or energy management systems (ES) to manage your facility's energy use. If you have an ES installed, make sure it is set correctly and operating properly. If you do not have either system, you should install setback thermostats at a minimum. If you need help, hire an expert to help you adjust the settings.
3. INSTALL THE MOST ENERGY EFFICIENT LIGHTING OPTIONS AVAILABLE AND
INCORPORATE CONTROL DEVICES (LOW /MEDIUM COST ACTIONS)
Energy efficient lighting options are available for all business needs. Install compact fluorescent
bulbs in task lights and high performance T8 lamps and ballasts and/or pulse start metal halide systems in larger applications. Also, do not forget to install lighting control systems, including day-lighting controls, occupancy sensors and timers. Lighting controls turn lights down or off when they are not needed. Convert exit lights to LED (light-emitting diode) which use only two to three watts and can last up to 20 years.
4. MAINTAIN HEATING, VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT REGULARLY (LOW COST ACTION)
Follow all manufacturers’ guidelines for maintaining heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment. Have HVAC systems serviced regularly. Change air filters monthly. Basic maintenance makes a difference: you can cut up to 30 percent of fan energy use and up to ten percent of space conditioning energy use. Clean the space around your heating, water heating or cooling system to prevent debris from being pulled into burners or filters. Insulate hot water pipes and air ducts to minimize losses.


Steps That Businesses Can Take To Manage
Rising Natural Gas Costs

You can reduce natural gas use at your facility. This Focus on Energy action list will
help you get started. If you do not have the expertise in-house, work with Focus on Energy
and local experts such as contractors and product and service providers to complete energy saving projects.
This fact sheet identifies no-cost, low-cost and moderate cost options to increase your
businesses’ energy efficiency. Each step you take will help you manage rising natural gas
costs now and in years to come.

SIX ACTIONS THAT WILL REDUCE NATURAL GAS USE
1. Install setback thermostats or check settings of existing units
2. Ensure energy management systems are working properly
3. Install boiler system controls
4. Maintain steam systems
5. Optimize hot water systems
6. Install heat recovery units

1. INSTALL SETBACK THERMOSTATS OR CHECK SETTINGS ON EXISTING UNITS
(NO / LOW COST ACTIONS)
If you have not installed setback thermostats in your small to medium sized facility, you are
wasting energy and money. Install these inexpensive units now. They ensure that you are
not over-heating buildings during non-operating hours. If setback thermostats are installed,
double check their settings and reset them if necessary to match seasonal operating hours
and temperature requirements. You can reduce natural gas use by one percent for every one
degree Fahrenheit you set back the thermostat.
2. ENSURE THE ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IS WORKING PROPERLY
(NO / LOW COST ACTIONS)
If your medium to large facility has an energy management system (ES), make sure it is set
correctly and operating properly. ES often are set incorrectly, which wastes energy and money.
If a qualified staff member cannot adjust your system, hire an expert to do it for you. The
savings will be substantial: you can reduce natural gas use by up to 20 percent by using an
ES correctly.
3. INSTALL BOILER SYSTEM CONTROLS (LOW / MODERATE COST ACTION)
If your building or process uses a boiler, install system controls. These controls, such as outdoor temperature resets, manage the boiler's operating temperature. They trim natural gas use during fall, spring and some winter warm spells. The benefits of installing boiler controls are substantial: you will reduce the boiler's natural gas use by 15 percent to 20 percent for non-condensing boilers and up to 40 percent for condensing boilers.
4. MAINTAIN STEAM SYSTEMS (LOW /MODERATE / HIGH COST ACTIONS)
Many school, commercial, industrial and government buildings operate steam systems and will save energy by taking the following actions. For example, a typical industrial facility can reduce steam system related natural gas use by 20 percent.
1. Reduce steam system leaks. Repair leaks in steam piping, condensate return lines and fittings. Wasted steam equals wasted energy.
2. Insulate piping and valves. Examine piping and valves and insulate them. If existing insulation is damaged, replace it immediately. Un-insulated pipes lose heat and cause the boiler to use more natural gas than necessary.
3. Test steam traps, replace defective traps, and maintain existing ones. Malfunctioning steam traps waste steam and result in higher boiler fuel consumption. You can reduce your boiler's natural gas use from five percent to ten percent. Simple payback is often one year or less.
4. Tune-up boilers every three to six months. Do not ignore basic maintenance; keep steam systems operating at peak efficiency and you will manage energy costs more effectively. Routine maintenance can reduce facility energy use by two percent.
5. Implement additional, longer term boiler modifications. Several actions will further increase boiler efficiency. These equipment modifications include: 1) adjusting boiler operations by adding stack economizers; 2) maximizing condensate return; 3) automating blow-down and recovering heat from the blow-down stream; 4) recovering flash steam heat; and 5) installing automatic
burner controls. These actions will pay for themselves in one to three years.
5. OPTIMIZE HOT WATER SYSTEMS (NO / LOW / MODERATE COST ACTIONS)
You can take several actions to reduce both natural gas and water use.
1. Minimize use. Many businesses can find ways to reduce hot water use. Install low flow, high efficiency pre-rinse sprayers at dishwashing stations in food service operations, replace full flow showerheads in lodging facilities and locker rooms with low flow units and upgrade laundry systems.
2. Adjust hot water temperatures. Unless high temperature levels are required by code, set water heater temperatures to 120°F. Each 10 degree Fahrenheit reduction in water temperature will generally save three to five percent on water heating costs.
3. Insulate hot water pipes. Add inexpensive insulation to all hot water piping and reduce heat loss.
4. Install more efficient hot water systems. If you are considering a change, make sure you install energy (and water) efficient units.
6. INSTALL HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS (MODERATE TO HIGH COST ACTIONS)
Many businesses and farm operations should consider installing heat recovery systems to capture waste heat from refrigeration equipment, boilers, driers, furnaces and other manufacturing processes. This waste heat can then be used to meet other heating or hot water needs and displace the need for natural gas. If you already have a heat recovery system, make sure it is working properly.
BUSINESS-SPECIFIC STEPS FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS
• Water heating accounts for up to 17 percent of a restaurant's energy use. Install low flow high efficiency pre-rinse sprayers at dishwashing stations to reduce energy and water use and costs.
• Turn down or turn off gas-powered cooking equipment during slow periods.
LODGING
• Space and water heating together to account for 49 percent of a lodging business's energy use. Install low flow showerheads in guest rooms and pre-rinse sprayers in food service areas. Also consider installing new laundry technologies such as an ozone system or a water reclamation system to recover hot water from wash water.
AGRICULTURAL BUSINESSES
• Dairy operations can install heat recovery tanks to capture waste heat from refrigeration systems and reuse it to meet space or water heating needs.
• A new generation of window film products helps greenhouses cut winter natural gas use, often substantially.
MANUFACTURING CUSTOMERS
• Heat recovery systems will help you reduce energy waste and improve the efficiency of your operation or process. If you were postponing these projects because the project economics seemed weak, it is time to reexamine them.
LEARN MORE
Focus on Energy can help you with these steps to take control of your business's natural gas usage. We offer fact sheets, case studies and technical data sheets on many of the energy saving actions and technologies discussed in this action list. We sponsor a variety of training courses and seminars statewide that are open to all business customers.
We can answer your energy efficiency questions, provide assistance, make recommendations and connect you with local contractors who can help. Call 818-270-6319 or visit www.energysavers2.com.

Energy conservation and renewable energy

Energy conservation and renewable energy

You have to be innovative and creative in utilizing current technology for utmost productivity and economic benefit.

Implementing energy efficiency methods, products and procedure.
Initiating the installation of renewable energy with a combination of sources; such as: Geothermal HVAC, a combination of Solar/photovoltaic system with wind turbine for a continuous uninterrupted energy generation.

Conserving water, utilizing rainwater harvesting methods

ENERGY SAVERS
The Energy Conservation and Management Division develops and implements effective clean energy programs
– renewable energy, energy efficiency and conservation, clean fuels and efficient transportation –
Water conservation
to promote environmental and economic sustainability for America and its citizens.

Energy Savers Conservation and Management Division is responsible for planning and administering energy efficiency and renewable energy technology programs. Included are programs related to the development and use of solar, wind, geothermal, and electricity storage resources as well as alternative fuels and transportation. In addition, this division provides technical assistance and information in these areas to all entities that desire such information, and the general public.
Energy savers partners with citizens, businesses, industry, schools, universities, and research laboratories to invest in clean energy infrastructure and to conduct clean energy programs. Our staff develops and implements effective clean energy programs – renewable energy, energy efficiency and conservation, efficient transportation and clean fuels – that reduce energy use and utility expenditures by increasing and diversifying energy supplies to promote environmental and economic sustainability for the United States and its citizens.
As the importance of energy efficiency, energy conservation, and renewable energy grows each year on a global scale, Energy Savers is becoming major stakeholders in the development and implementation of effective programs that strive to lessen dependence on fossil fuels and foreign oil.
On behalf of our division, I welcome you to our website and encourage your suggestions as to how this site can serve your needs better. www.energysavers2.com

Utility Bill Audits and Energy Accounting

Utility Bill Audits and Energy Accounting
Among its other offerings, Independent Energy Consultants of Aurora, Ohio, provides utility bill audits and energy accounting services. To assist you in finding energy savings, we will replicate your organization in its powerful accounting system.  We will set up your facilities, organizational structure, cost centers, vendors, accounts, utility rates, etc. We believe in the concept that you cannot manage what you don't understand or do not measure. We will input your utility bills, and our systems will quickly pinpoint billing or meter errors and provide you with 24x7 online access to a wealth of quality information that will allow you to make better business decisions.  To view an 18-minute overview demonstration of the powerful system we use to manage all your utilities (electric, water, natural gas, propane, fuel oil, sewer, etc.) please click here.
Utility Bill Auditing: Approximately 50 billing audit calculations are performed to spot possible errors and verify the accuracy of utility billing.  Independent Energy Consultants monitors, trends and compares current bills to historical monthly bills to spot discrepancies in parameters such as total cost, total consumption, per unit cost, per unit consumption, peak demands, load factor, length of billing periods, estimated meter readings, overlapping bill periods, etc.  User defined limits will flag bill discrepancies in need of further review or correction.  Independent Energy Consultants will assist with collection and/or credits for overcharges.
Based on the client's wishes we will either audit your bills after they have been paid, or promptly review them and send your Accounts Payable (A/P) staff notice when bills are correct for payment.  Our "smart" energy accounting system can also be linked to your A/P system if desired.
Rate Code Analysis: Your utility company assigns you a rate schedule based on an estimate of how they think you will use electricity or natural gas.  Sometimes they guess wrong and often conditions change after a rate schedule is assigned.  Your rate schedule determines how much you are billed.  Often a facility qualifies to be billed under one of several rate schedules.  Independent Energy Consultants will calculate your bill under each acceptable rate schedule and show you which is best for your situation.  If electricity savings or natural gas savings are available, we will identify any switching costs and propose a plan that is best for you.  Rates and riders change and the energy consumption of most facilities changes over time.  We recommend an annual analysis to determine the most appropriate rate code for your unique business.
Tariff analysis: Once a Rate Code analysis is performed to ensure you are being billed under the most advantageous rate we go an extra step to let you know what can be done to minimize your costs under that rate schedule.  This analysis looks for excessive demand charges, ratchet demands, power factor penalties, time-of-use pricing, etc..  Once these factors are known, automated or procedural changes can be implemented to avoid operating under high-cost conditions.
Cost Avoidance Verification: Cost avoidance is the name given to the money that was not spent because an Energy Cost Measure (ECM) was performed or installed.  It is calculated by comparing a baseline energy consumption before the ECM, to the energy consumption after an ECM, and adjusting for independent variables that influence your usage.  The energy not consumed is then multiplied by the current rate to determine the avoided cost.  The independent variables that influence a utility bill can vary by season, region, occupancy, hours of operation, product produced, etc.  
For clients that contract with 3rd party vendors to implement the ECM, Independent Energy Consultants can provide independent verification that the vendor-installed ECM is operating as specified.  Performance Contracting and/or energy loans and grants require this verification.  For more information please refer to our newsletter on this topic.

ENERGY AUDIT Procedure


ENERGY AUDIT Procedure

Energy Audits

Good energy management begins with an energy audit
Effective management of energy-consuming systems can lead to significant cost and energy savings as well as increased comfort, lower maintenance costs, and extended equipment life. A successful energy management program begins with a thorough energy audit.
The energy audit evaluates the efficiency of all building and process systems that use energy. The energy auditor starts at the utility meters, locating all energy sources coming into a facility. The auditor then identifies energy streams for each fuel, quantifies those energy streams into discrete functions, evaluates the efficiency of each of those functions, and identifies energy and cost savings opportunities.
Audit activities, in general order, include:
  • Identify all energy systems
  • Evaluate the condition of the systems
  • Analyze the impact of improvements to those systems
  • Write up an energy audit report
The report documents the use and occupancy of the building and the condition of the building and building systems equipment. The report also recommends ways to improve efficiency through improvements in operation and maintenance items (O&M), and through installation of energy conservation measures (ECM).
Degrees of Thoroughness
Audit levels, in order of increasing complexity are:
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·  Level 1-The walk-through audit. The walk-through audit is a tour of the facility to visually inspect each system. The walk-through includes an evaluation of energy consumption data to analyze energy use quantities and patterns, as well as to provide comparisons with industry averages, or benchmarks, for similar facilities. This is the least costly audit, but a level 1 audit can yield a preliminary estimate of savings potential and a list of low-cost savings opportunities through improvements in operational and maintenance practices. The level 1 audit information may be used for a more detailed audit later if the preliminary savings potential appears to warrant further auditing activity.
·  Level 2-Standard audit. The standard audit quantifies energy use and losses through a more detailed review and analysis of equipment, systems, operational characteristics, and on-site measurements and testing. Standard energy engineering calculations are used to analyze efficiencies and calculate energy and cost savings based on improvements and changes to each system. The standard audit will also include an economic analysis of recommended ECMs.
·  Level 3-Computer simulation. The level 3 audit is the most expensive level of energy audit and is most often warranted for complex facilities or systems. The audit includes more detailed energy use by function and a more comprehensive evaluation of energy use patterns. Computer simulation software is used to predict building system performance and accounts for changes in weather and other conditions. The goal is to build a base for comparison that is consistent with the actual energy use of the facility. The auditor will then make changes to improve the efficiency of various systems and measure the effects compared to the baseline. This method also accounts for interactions between systems to help prevent overestimation of savings.

The Audit Process
The first step is to determine which audit is appropriate for a facility, given the complexity of its systems and buildings. Then, information may be collected on the structural and mechanical components that affect building energy use and the operational characteristics of the facility. Much of this information can be collected prior to the site visit. Evaluating energy use and systems before going on-site helps identify potential savings and makes best use of time spent on-site.
The audit consists of three distinct steps: preliminary data collection and evaluation, site visit, and analysis and reporting. An estimate of the time for each step can be made. Allocating time for each step leads to a more comprehensive and useful audit report. The following sections describe the tasks associated with each step of the audit process.
Preliminary Data Collection
energy use index

A pre-site review of building systems and their operation should generate a list of specific questions and issues to be discussed during the actual visit to the facility.
This preparation will help ensure the most effective use of your on-site time and minimize disruptions to building personnel. A thorough pre-site review will also reduce the time required to complete the on-site portion of the audit.
The first task is to collect and review two years worth of utility energy data for all fuels, including electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, and any other delivered fuels. This information is used to analyze operational characteristics, calculate energy benchmarks for comparison to industry averages, estimate savings potential, set an energy reduction target, and establish a baseline to monitor the effectiveness of implemented measures.
Several steps must be taken to ensure you have all the information required to do a thorough and accurate evaluation of energy consumption data.
  • Make sure you receive copies of all monthly utility bills (for all meters) and delivered fuel invoices.
  • Sort utility bills by building or by meter and organize them into 12-month blocks using the meter-read dates.
  • Locate all meters and sub-meters. If numerous meters are used, label them on a site plan.
  • Determine which building or space is served by which meter.
  • Calculate the conditioned area (in square feet) for each building.
Use a computer spreadsheet to enter, sum, and calculate benchmarks and to graph utility information. Record energy units (kWh, therms, gallons, etc.), electric demand (kW), and cost for each fuel type. Units of production (number of units, occupied rooms, students, persons served, etc.) should also be included when energy use depends on production. Relationships between energy use and those factors that drive energy use can be determined by analyzing the data. Some of these factors include occupancy, sales volume, floor area, and outdoor temperatures.
The Energy Use Index
The Energy Use Index (EUI) is expressed in British Thermal Units/square foot/year (BTU/ft2/yr) and can be used to compare energy consumption to similar building types or to track consumption from year to year in the same building. The EUI is calculated by converting annual consumption of all fuels to BTUs, then dividing by the area (gross square footage) of the building. EUI is a good indicator of the relative potential for energy savings. A comparatively low EUI indicates less potential for large energy savings.
By tracking the EUI using a rolling 12-month block, building performance can be evaluated based on increasing or decreasing energy use trends. This method requires a minimum of two years of energy consumption data to establish the trend line.
To calculate BTUs and cost per square foot, the heated (or cooled) area to be calculated must be determined for each building. Blueprints can be used to obtain the dimensions of each floor, or the outside of the building (gross area) can be measured. The total building area is found by multiplying this area by the number of floors. Basement areas and mechanical rooms are not usually included as conditioned areas.
Load Factor
Evaluating use (kilowatt-hours [kWh]), power (kilowatts [kW]), and power factor charges separately can be useful in evaluating the impact of demand and power factor penalties on the monthly electric bill. Rescheduling or alternating run times of larger equipment can lower demand costs. Power factor correction devices can have paybacks of less than two years. Although demand and power factor correction measures save little energy, the significant cost savings and relatively short payback periods make them attractive in the audit analysis.
There is a difference between billing and actual demand on the utility bill. Actual demand is the value registered on the meter and should be used to evaluate power requirements and load factor for the facility. Billing demand is the amount of demand for which the facility is billed. Rate schedules that include a ratchet clause, power factor adjustment, or first block of kW at no charge can cause billing and actual demand to differ.
Load factor (LF) is the relationship between electric use (kWh) and demand (kW). LF is commonly calculated by dividing the monthly electric use by the demand by the number of hours in the billing period. This gives a ratio of average demand to peak demand and is a good indicator of the cost savings potential of shifting some electric loads to off-peak hours to reduce overall demand.
The theoretical maximum load factor for a facility that consumes electricity at a steady rate at the highest demand registered on the demand meter is 1 (one). An LF of 1 indicates that there is no variation in consumption or time of day peaks in demand. Most facilities don't operate 24 hours a day, so load factors will normally be considerably lower than the theoretical maximum. For facilities with high load factors, the only way to reduce demand is by installing more efficient electrical equipment.
A low load factor is a good indication that a facility has demand peaks at some time in the billing period. The causes of these demand peaks need to be identified and controlled.
Operation of nonessential equipment can be restricted during peak demand periods and rescheduled for operation during off peak hours. Many energy management control systems (EMCS) have demand limiting and load shedding capabilities that can help maintain acceptable load factors. The important thing is to monitor the load factor and establish what is normal for each facility, noting any significant changes in the electric use consumption and load factor.
Analyzing Energy Data
Graphs and consumption data must be analyzed to understand how energy is used at the facility and which factors influence consumption the most. This is done by identifying how each energy using system in the building operates during the year. Annual energy use is allocated to either base or seasonal loads, and equipment is matched to each category.
Energy data should be organized into a presentation that includes graphs, tables, and pie charts, which make it easier to see consumption trends and understand how each building uses energy. Presented visually, the information is more appealing and easier to understand than text-only format.
Looking at Loads
Base loads consist of energy-using systems that consume a continuous amount of energy throughout the year. The base load can be established by drawing a horizontal line across a graph of energy consumption or cost at the average point of lowest consumption for each energy type (see figure on page 31). The base load is that portion of consumption or cost below the line. Base loads include lighting, office equipment, appliances, domestic hot water, and ventilation. High base loads indicate that energy management efforts should be focused in these areas.
Seasonal loads, such as heating and air conditioning, are identified as the portion of consumption or cost located above the line used to establish base loads on the graph. Seasonal loads can be the result of changes in weather or operation of the building.
High seasonal loads may reveal opportunities to reduce consumption by making improvements to the heating and air conditioning equipment, temperature controls, the building envelope, or to other systems which are affected by seasonal operation.
After utility use has been allocated to seasonal or base loads, the auditor should prepare a list of the major energy-using systems in the building and estimate the time when each system is in operation throughout the year. The list will help identify how each system uses energy and potential savings.
Those building systems with the greatest savings potential are easier to discover when the seasonal and base loads are understood. Building systems such as heating, cooling, lighting, and hot water can then be targeted for more detailed data collection.
One of the easiest ways to evaluate energy data is to watch for the trends in use, demand, or costs over time. Either graphing two or more years of monthly data on one graph or graphing only the annual totals for several years can help.
Another useful method for evaluating monthly data is a rolling summary where a new 12-month total is calculated each month by dropping the oldest month and adding the newest.
This curve will remain relatively flat if there are no significant changes in energy use. Even though each monthly figure is an annual total, any sudden change is the result of that month's operation. This is a good graph to see the overall consumption trends of the facility. A gradual increase, for example, may indicate that occupancy or production has increased, or that system efficiency is slowly degrading.
Another useful method for evaluating monthly data is a rolling summary where a new 12-month total is calculated each month by dropping the oldest month and adding the newest.
Building Profile
Obtaining mechanical, architectural, and electrical drawings and specifications for the original building as well as for any additions or remodeling work that may have been done is the first step to creating a building profile. Any past energy audits or studies should be reviewed.
The auditor can use this information to develop a building profile narrative that includes age, occupancy, description, and existing conditions of architectural, mechanical, and electrical systems. The profile should note the major energy-consuming equipment or systems and identify systems and components that are inherently inefficient.
Having several copies of a simple floor plan of the building will be useful for notes during the site visit. A separate copy should be made for noting information on locations of HVAC equipment and controls, heating zones, light levels, and other energy-related systems. If architectural drawings are not available, emergency fire exit plans are usually posted on each floor; these plans are a good alternative for a basic floor plan.
A site sketch of the building or complex should also be made. The sketch should show the relative location and outline of each building; name and building number of each building; year of construction of each building and additions; dimensions of each building and additions; location, fuel type and identification numbers of utility meters; central plants; and orientation of the complex.
While completing the pre-site review, the auditor should note areas of particular interest and write down any questions about the lighting systems and controls, HVAC zone controls, or setback operation. Other questions may regard equipment maintenance practices. At this point the auditor should discuss preliminary observations with the building manager or operator by phone. The building manager or operator should be asked about their interest in particular conservation projects or planned changes to the building or its systems. The audit should be scheduled when key systems are in operation and when the building operator can take part.
Potential ECM and O&M procedures can be developed during this preliminary research phase. These can be discussed with the building operator or manager at the time of the site visit.
The Site Visit
The site visit will be spent inspecting actual systems and answering specific questions from the preliminary review. A full day should be allocated on-site for each building. The amount of time required will vary depending on the completeness of the preliminary information collected, the complexity of the building and systems, and the need for testing equipment.
Prior to touring the facility, the auditor and building manager should review the auditor's energy consumption profiles. The building manager can provide occupancy schedules, O&M practices, and plans that may have an impact on energy consumption. This kind of information can help identify times when building systems such as lighting, recirculating pumps, or outside air ventilation can be turned off and temperatures set back.
Analysis and Reporting
Post-site work is a necessary and important step to ensure the audit will be useful. The auditor needs to evaluate the information gathered during the site visit, research possible conservation opportunities, organize the audit into a comprehensive report, and make recommendations on mechanical, structural, operational and maintenance improvements.
Immediately after the audit, the auditor should review and clarify notes from the site visit and complete information obtained during the audit so it isn't forgotten. More copies of the floor plan can be used to clean up notes for permanent records. Photos should be labeled, identified, and matched to a floor plan.
Proposed ECM and O&M lists should be reviewed. Measures lacking potential should be eliminated and an explanation provided. Preliminary research on potential conservation measures should be developed along with energy savings calculations and cost estimates.
After the retrofit options are analyzed, the cost effectiveness of each ECM needs to be determined. A number of methods have been developed to provide a uniform method of comparison.
The least complicated of these methods is referred to as simple payback (SPB). SPB is calculated by dividing the cost of the retrofit by the energy cost savings. The result is the number of years after which the investment will have paid for itself. Those projects with the shortest paybacks are assumed to be the most cost effective.
Simple Payback =
First Cost/Energy Savings
SPB is the easiest method to use and does not require any consideration of future value factors such as discount rates, inflation and other annual costs during the life of the measure.
Other more sophisticated types of payback analyses involve consideration of changes in operating costs, return rates on money invested, fuel cost escalations, and life cycle costing. The two other most common economic evaluation methods used in energy audit reports include net present value and life cycle cost.
The Audit Report
base & seasonal loads

The audit report should be prepared keeping in mind the various audiences that will be using each section. Each section should be customized to most effectively reach that audience.
Audiences for audit reports may include:
  • Administrator/superintendent
  • Facilities and plant managers
  • Comptroller
  • Plant engineer
  • O&M
The following outlines the basic components of a well-organized audit report:
1. Executive Summary
The executive summary should be a simple, straightforward, and to the point explanation of the current situation and recommended improvements, outlining the advantages of those improvements. The executive summary should include a brief introduction to the facility and describe the purpose of the audit and overall conclusions. An executive may read no further than this one- or two-page introduction, so a list of recommended actions is essential.
2. Building Information
This section provides a general background of the facility, the mechanical systems, and operational profile. A description of the building envelope, age and construction history, operating schedules, number of employees, occupancy patterns, and a discussion of the operation and maintenance program should be included.
The building information section should also contain a floor plan, selected photos of the facility and mechanical systems, a description of energy types used in the plant, and a description of the primary mechanical systems and controls.
3. Utility Summary
The utility summary provides energy accounting information for the last two years as well as selected charts and graphs. The charts and graphs should be easy to understand and demonstrate the overall consumption patterns of the facility.
Actual monthly consumption by fuel type may be of more interest to the engineering and maintenance staff while annual costs or dollar-savings information may be more appropriate for administrative personnel. Pie charts of energy use and cost by fuel type can offer compelling documentation of overall energy uses and expenses. The utility summary also includes reports of overall facility benchmarks, energy use indices, and comparisons with industry averages. A copy of the utility rate schedules and any discussion or evaluation of rate alternatives for which the facility may qualify can be part of this section.
4. ECMs
The ECM section summarizes the energy conservation measures that meet the financial criteria established by the facility owner or manager. The report should provide the estimated cost, estimated savings, and simple payback for each measure in a summary chart. A one- or two-page description of each energy conservation measure and support calculations should follow this summary chart. The description should describe each ECM and include energy use and savings calculations, as well as economic analysis and provide any assumptions that were made regarding operation or equipment efficiency. ECMs that were considered but did not meet financial criteria should also be identified.
5. O&M measures
Observations include items that will reduce energy consumption and costs, address existing problems, or improve practices that will help prolong equipment life of systems not being retrofit. Cost and savings estimates of each O&M recommendation are listed.
6. Appendices
Information in this section may include floor plans and site notes; photos; audit data forms; motor, equipment, and lighting inventories; and equipment cut sheets of existing or recommended systems.
Followup
The building manager should review the audit report with the auditor to become familiar with ECMs and methods of funding the ECMs. The building manager must also understand how to provide training for building operators and occupants to improve the operating efficiency of the building.
Energy audits provide the information that energy managers need to identify energy consumption patterns and components of a facility and document existing conditions, Energy conservation opportunities can be identified and prioritized. By taking an open-minded and methodical approach to the audit process, it is possible to identify and avoid unnecessary expenditures in most facilities while improving building operation and comfort. Occupants will welcome the improvements and management will appreciate the reduced energy costs.

TYPES OF ENERGY AUDITS

TYPES OF ENERGY AUDITS   
The term energy audit is commonly used to describe a broad spectrum of energy studies ranging from a quick walk-through of a facility to identify major problem areas to a comprehensive analysis of the implications of alternative energy efficiency measures sufficient to satisfy the financial criteria of sophisticated investors. Three common audit programs are described in more detail below, although the actual tasks performed and level of effort may vary with the consultant providing services under these broad headings. The only way to insure that a proposed audit will meet your specific needs is to spell out those requirements in a detailed scope of work. Taking the time to prepare a formal solicitation will also assure the building owner of receiving competitive and comparable proposals.
Preliminary Audit
The preliminary audit alternatively called a simple audit, screening audit or walk-through audit, is the simplest and quickest type of audit. It involves minimal interviews with site operating personnel, a brief review of facility utility bills and other operating data, and a walk-through of the facility to become familiar with the building operation and identify glaring areas of energy waste or inefficiency.
Typically, only major problem areas will be uncovered during this type of audit. Corrective measures are briefly described, and quick estimates of implementation cost, potential operating cost savings, and simple payback periods are provided. This level of detail, while not sufficient for reaching a final decision on implementing a proposed measures, is adequate to prioritize energy efficiency projects and determine the need for a more detailed audit.
General Audit
The general audit alternatively called a mini-audit, site energy audit or complete site energy audit expands on the preliminary audit described above by collecting more detailed information about facility operation and performing a more detailed evaluation of energy conservation measures identified. Utility bills are collected for a 12 to 36 month period to allow the auditor to evaluate the facility's energy/demand rate structures, and energy usage profiles. Additional metering of specific energy-consuming systems is often performed to supplement utility data. In-depth interviews with facility operating personnel are conducted to provide a better understanding of major energy consuming systems as well as insight into variations in daily and annual energy consumption and demand.
This type of audit will be able to identify all energy conservation measures appropriate for the facility given its operating parameters. A detailed financial analysis is performed for each measure based on detailed implementation cost estimates, site-specific operating cost savings, and the customer's investment criteria. Sufficient detail is provided to justify project implementation.
Investment-Grade Audit
In most corporate settings, upgrades to a facility's energy infrastructure must compete with non-energy related investments for capital funding. Both energy and non-energy investments are rated on a single set of financial criteria that generally stress the expected return on investment (ROI). The projected operating savings from the implementation of energy projects must be developed such that they provide a high level of confidence. In fact, investors often demand guaranteed savings.
The investment-grader audit alternatively called a comprehensive audit, detailed audit, maxi audit, or technical analysis audit, expands on the general audit described above by providing a dynamic model of energy use characteristics of both the existing facility and all energy conservation measures identified. The building model is calibrated against actual utility data to provide a realistic baseline against which to compute operating savings for proposed measures. Extensive attention is given to understanding not only the operating characteristics of all energy consuming systems, but also situations that cause load profile variations on both an annual and daily basis. Existing utility data is supplemented with submetering of major energy consuming systems and monitoring of system operating characteristics.